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Notes & literary analysis

AP World History / Units 1–4

AP World History Notes

Units 1–4 · c. 1200–1750 · 26 official topics + 2 Unit 3 supplements · 28 study sheets · 56 note pages

  1. 1.1 Developments in East Asia
  2. 1.2 Developments in Dar al-Islam
  3. 1.3 Developments in South and Southeast Asia
  4. 1.4 State Building in the Americas
  5. 1.5 State Building in Africa
  6. 1.6 Developments in Europe
  7. 1.7 Comparison in the Period from c. 1200 to c. 1450
  8. 2.1 The Silk Roads
  9. 2.2 The Mongol Empire and the Making of the Modern World
  10. 2.3 Exchange in the Indian Ocean
  11. 2.4 Trans-Saharan Trade Routes
  12. 2.5 Cultural Consequences of Connectivity
  13. 2.6 Environmental Consequences of Connectivity
  14. 2.7 Comparison in Networks of Exchange
  15. 3.1 Empires Expand
  16. 3.2 Empires: Administration
  17. 3.3 Empires: Belief Systems
  18. 3.4 Comparison in Land-Based Empires
  19. Unit 3 Supplement 1: Military and Imperial Government
  20. Unit 3 Supplement 2: Beliefs, Legitimacy, and Comparison
  21. 4.1 Technological Innovations from 1450 to 1750
  22. 4.2 Exploration: Causes and Events from 1450 to 1750
  23. 4.3 Columbian Exchange
  24. 4.4 Maritime Empires Established
  25. 4.5 Maritime Empires Maintained and Developed
  26. 4.6 Internal and External Challenges to State Power from 1450 to 1750
  27. 4.7 Changing Social Hierarchies from 1450 to 1750
  28. 4.8 Continuity and Change from 1450 to 1750

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Units 1–3 retain the legacy inks below. Unit 4 uses all eleven FBLA inks, with its own legend: y is yellow there, while mb is medium blue. These concise content-review sheets complement source analysis and AP writing practice.

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Unit 1: The Global Tapestry

1.1 Developments in East Asia

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1.1 Developments in East Asia

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Song governance
-> Economic expansion
-> Technology and commerce
o Song governance
-> Song rule (960-1279) centralized civilian government.
-> A bureaucracy administered taxes and imperial policies.
-> Civil service exams tested Confucian classics.
-> Scholar-officials linked education to state authority.
-> Exams widened recruitment but favored wealthy families.
-> Mongols conquered the Song in 1279; Yuan began in 1271.
o Economic expansion
-> Champa rice matured quickly and resisted drought.
-> More harvests and irrigation increased food supplies.
-> Farm surpluses supported population growth and cities.
-> Markets linked rural producers to urban consumers.
-> Commercialization increased production for sale.
-> East Asia traded silk and porcelain through sea routes.
o Technology and commerce
-> Iron and steel output supplied tools and weapons.
-> Coal fueled iron production in parts of Song China.
-> Woodblock printing spread texts and exam preparation.
-> Movable type appeared but woodblock printing persisted.
-> Paper money eased exchange in a growing market economy.

1.1 Developments in East Asia

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Confucian social order
-> Buddhist continuity
-> Regional states and comparison
o Confucian social order
-> Confucian hierarchy supported rulers and family elders.
-> Filial piety required respect for parents and ancestors.
-> Neo-Confucian thought joined ethics with metaphysics.
-> Patriarchy limited women's authority and independence.
-> Foot binding spread among elite women in Song China.
-> Scholar-gentry status rested on land and education.
o Buddhist continuity
-> Mahayana Buddhism remained influential in East Asia.
-> Buddhist monasteries offered worship and charity.
-> Buddhism coexisted with Confucian and Daoist traditions.
-> Chan Buddhism emphasized meditation and insight.
-> Tibetan Buddhism joined Mahayana with tantric practices.
-> Theravada Buddhism prevailed in much of Southeast Asia.
o Regional states and comparison
-> Tributary ties linked East Asia without uniform rule.
-> Korea adopted Chinese exams; hereditary elites endured.
-> Vietnam used Chinese bureaucracy but kept local customs.
-> Japan's shoguns held power; samurai served regional lords.
-> Ming rule restored Chinese dynastic government in 1368.

1.2 Developments in Dar al-Islam

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1.2 Developments in Dar al-Islam

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Fragmentation and legitimacy
-> Regional state formation
-> Trade and social structures
o Fragmentation and legitimacy
-> By 1200, Abbasid political control was largely in Iraq.
-> Regional dynasties replaced centralized caliphal rule.
-> Turkic migration supplied soldiers and new ruling elites.
-> Seljuk Turks kept caliphs as symbols of legitimacy.
-> Mongols sacked Baghdad in 1258, ending its caliphate.
o Regional state formation
-> Muslim rulers used armies, taxation, and Islamic law.
-> Mamluks: military slaves seized Egypt's throne in 1250.
-> Mamluks held Egypt and Syria, checking Mongol expansion.
-> Delhi Sultanate formed in 1206 through Turkic conquest.
-> Delhi used Persian administration and local Hindu elites.
-> Ottomans emerged c. 1299, expanding from Anatolia.
o Trade and social structures
-> Trade linked cities across Dar al-Islam.
-> Muslim merchants connected land and Indian Ocean routes.
-> Urban markets and craft production enriched ruling elites.
-> Land taxes and irrigation supported agrarian economies.
-> Social rank reflected wealth, lineage, and slave status.
-> Women held property rights but faced patriarchal limits.

1.2 Developments in Dar al-Islam

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Religious communities
-> Intellectual innovations
-> Knowledge exchange
o Religious communities
-> Islam linked diverse regions through belief and law.
-> Ulama interpreted Islamic law; madrasas trained scholars.
-> Sufi teachers spread Islam through local networks.
-> Judaism and Christianity continued under Muslim rule.
-> Jews and Christians often paid jizya for protected status.
-> Legal protection did not mean social or religious equality.
o Intellectual innovations
-> Scholars advanced algebra, astronomy, and medicine.
-> Hospitals and medical texts supported clinical learning.
-> Nasir al-Din al-Tusi improved astronomical models.
-> Ibn Rushd's works shaped later philosophical debate.
-> Intellectual work built on Greek, Persian, Indian learning.
o Knowledge exchange
-> Arabic connected scholars across Muslim societies.
-> Translations preserved and expanded older knowledge.
-> Paper from China helped books and scholarship spread.
-> Trade and travel carried texts and technologies.
-> Al-Andalus and Sicily linked Islamic and European learning.
-> Knowledge exchange influenced European universities.

1.3 Developments in South and Southeast Asia

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1.3 Developments in South and Southeast Asia

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> South Asian kingdoms
-> Southeast Asian empires
-> Land and maritime power
o South Asian kingdoms
-> South Asia had rival states, not one unified empire.
-> Delhi Sultanate began in 1206 through Turkic conquest.
-> Muslim sultans ruled a largely Hindu population.
-> Land taxes funded armies; local elites retained influence.
-> Vijayanagara arose in 1336 as a southern Hindu kingdom.
-> Its rulers used temples and patronage to legitimize rule.
o Southeast Asian empires
-> Southeast Asia adapted Indian beliefs to local rule.
-> Srivijaya linked Buddhist patronage to sea trade.
-> Its ports near the Malacca Strait taxed passing trade.
-> Srivijaya declined in the 1200s as rival ports rose.
-> Majapahit arose in Java in 1293 with Hindu-Buddhist courts.
-> Khmer rulers at Angkor used temples to display authority.
o Land and maritime power
-> Khmer canals and reservoirs supported rice farming.
-> Agrarian surpluses sustained cities, armies, and temples.
-> Delhi relied on land revenue; Srivijaya on port commerce.
-> Majapahit combined a rice-growing core with sea networks.
-> Both land and maritime rulers tied wealth to royal power.

1.3 Developments in South and Southeast Asia

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Religious traditions
-> Social hierarchies
-> Economic networks
o Religious traditions
-> Hinduism linked dharma and caste duties in South Asia.
-> Bhakti devotion offered worship beyond priestly rituals.
-> Buddhism sustained monasteries and learning in Srivijaya.
-> Theravada Buddhism spread among mainland populations.
-> In Khmer lands, it gained ground over royal Hindu cults.
-> Islam spread through conquest, merchants, and Sufi teachers.
o Social hierarchies
-> South Asian caste hierarchies persisted under Muslim rule.
-> Brahmins gained status from ritual and temple patronage.
-> Sufi and Bhakti teachers stressed personal devotion.
-> Southeast Asian rulers adapted beliefs to local customs.
-> Conversion did not erase older practices or local elites.
o Economic networks
-> Monsoon winds linked ports across the Indian Ocean.
-> Southeast Asia exported spices; India supplied textiles.
-> Merchant diasporas carried Islam to coastal trading towns.
-> Muslim ports expanded while inland Hindu courts endured.
-> Temples held land and supported labor and local markets.
-> Trade enriched ports; farming sustained inland states.

1.4 State Building in the Americas

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1.4 State Building in the Americas

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Maya continuity
-> Mexica tribute empire
-> Mesoamerican agriculture
o Maya continuity
-> Maya city-states persisted in Yucatan, c. 1200-1450.
-> No unified Maya empire; rival dynasties ruled locally.
-> Earlier southern decline did not end Maya civilization.
-> Kings and priests used rituals to legitimize authority.
-> Polytheism, calendars and maize traditions continued.
o Mexica tribute empire
-> Mexica founded Tenochtitlan in 1325 on Lake Texcoco.
-> Triple Alliance formed in 1428, expanding by conquest.
-> Subject rulers kept local power but owed tribute.
-> Tribute goods sustained nobles, armies and the capital.
-> Priests and warriors ranked above commoners and slaves.
-> Huitzilopochtli worship tied sacrifice to warfare.
o Mesoamerican agriculture
-> Chinampas raised yields in shallow lake environments.
-> Maize, beans and squash sustained dense populations.
-> Irrigation and terraces adapted farming to local terrain.
-> Surpluses supported cities, elites and craft specialists.
-> Markets and merchants linked Mesoamerican communities.
-> Tribute demands enriched rulers but fueled resistance.

1.4 State Building in the Americas

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Inca centralization
-> Andean adaptations
-> American state comparison
o Inca centralization
-> Inca expansion accelerated under Pachacuti from 1438.
-> Cusco anchored a centralized empire in the Andes.
-> Officials governed provinces through local leaders.
-> Mit'a required rotating labor for state projects.
-> Roads and runners linked troops, officials and supplies.
-> Quipu knotted cords recorded labor and stored goods.
-> Inti worship and royal ancestor veneration backed rule.
o Andean adaptations
-> Terraces and irrigation expanded mountain farming.
-> Potatoes and quinoa suited highland environments.
-> Llamas carried goods; roads connected ecological zones.
-> Ayllu kin groups organized landholding and shared labor.
-> Storehouses supplied armies and buffered crop failures.
o American state comparison
-> Americas: farming surpluses supported stratified states.
-> Maya local dynasties contrast with Inca centralization.
-> Mexica tribute differed from Inca labor mobilization.
-> American rulers used religion to legitimize hierarchy.
-> Both empires expanded rapidly; Maya autonomy persisted.

1.5 State Building in Africa

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1.5 State Building in Africa

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Regional environments
-> Mali and gold trade
-> Islam and royal authority
-> Great Zimbabwe
o Regional environments
-> In c. 1200-1450, Africa had diverse forms of government.
-> Sahel grasslands linked farming zones to Saharan routes.
-> Camel caravans crossed deserts, connecting gold and salt.
-> Trade taxes and farm surpluses supported state growth.
o Mali and gold trade
-> Sundiata founded Mali in the 1200s through conquest.
-> Rulers taxed gold and salt trade across the Sahara.
-> Provincial leaders governed under Mali's king.
-> Niger River farming sustained towns and royal revenues.
o Islam and royal authority
-> Mali's rulers adopted Islam, joining Muslim trade networks.
-> Mansa Musa's 1324-1325 hajj displayed Mali's wealth.
-> Royal patronage supported mosques and learning in Timbuktu.
-> Many rural communities retained local religious practices.
o Great Zimbabwe
-> Great Zimbabwe grew powerful in southern Africa by c. 1300.
-> Cattle and farming supported rulers and social hierarchies.
-> Gold exports reached Indian Ocean ports through middlemen.

1.5 State Building in Africa

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Swahili city states
-> Ethiopia and Christianity
-> Diverse African societies
o Swahili city states
-> Kilwa and Mombasa were independent coastal trading cities.
-> Monsoon winds linked East Africa to Arabia and India.
-> Merchants exported gold, ivory, and enslaved people.
-> Port wealth supported ruling elites and urban growth.
-> Islam spread through trade; many coastal elites converted.
-> Swahili joined Bantu grammar with Arabic loanwords.
o Ethiopia and Christianity
-> The Solomonic dynasty took power in Ethiopia in 1270.
-> Claims of descent from Solomon legitimized kingship.
-> Highland farming sustained landholding nobles and rulers.
-> Christianity tied royal legitimacy to church institutions.
-> Rock-cut churches at Lalibela expressed Christian devotion.
-> Ethiopia retained Christianity amid nearby Muslim states.
o Diverse African societies
-> Mali was an empire; Swahili ports were separate city states.
-> Zimbabwe's stone walls marked elite wealth and power.
-> Ethiopia's Christian kings differed from Muslim Mali rulers.
-> Kinship councils governed many societies without kings.
-> Trade enriched elites; local beliefs and kinship persisted.

1.6 Developments in Europe

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1.6 Developments in Europe

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Feudal politics
-> Monarchies
-> Byzantine state
o Feudal politics
-> Europe c. 1200 had fragmented political authority.
-> Feudal ties exchanged land rights for military service.
-> Lords granted fiefs to vassals who pledged loyalty.
-> Nobles held local courts and fielded armed retainers.
-> Kings bargained with nobles rather than ruling uniformly.
-> Decentralization varied; towns also claimed autonomy.
o Monarchies
-> France's Capetians enlarged royal lands and courts.
-> England used royal courts and officials to extend rule.
-> Magna Carta (1215) limited royal power for elites.
-> Parliament gave nobles and towns a voice in taxation.
-> Iberian Christian kingdoms expanded into Muslim lands.
-> Taxes and paid armies helped monarchies centralize.
o Byzantine state
-> Byzantine emperors upheld Roman law and bureaucracy.
-> Orthodox Christianity reinforced imperial legitimacy.
-> Unlike feudal Europe, Byzantium had imperial offices.
-> Crusaders sacked Constantinople in 1204, weakening rule.
-> Restored in 1261, the state faced shrinking territory.

1.6 Developments in Europe

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Religious communities
-> Manorial agriculture
-> Social and economic change
o Religious communities
-> Latin Christianity linked western Europe under the pope.
-> Clergy ran schools; monasteries preserved learned texts.
-> Church courts and landholding bolstered religious power.
-> Judaism endured amid legal restrictions and expulsions.
-> Islam shaped Iberian cities, trade, and scholarship.
-> Crusades mobilized Christians and deepened religious rifts.
o Manorial agriculture
-> Manorialism organized estates around peasant labor.
-> Serfs owed dues and labor; they were bound to the land.
-> Free peasants also farmed; most Europeans lived rurally.
-> Heavy plows and three-field rotation raised some yields.
-> Agricultural surplus supported population and town growth.
-> Lords retained land power despite expanding markets.
o Social and economic change
-> Guilds regulated crafts; merchants gained urban influence.
-> Mediterranean trade linked Europe with Islamic markets.
-> Black Death killed millions and reduced labor supplies.
-> Labor scarcity raised wages and weakened some serfdom.
-> European hierarchies endured despite peasant revolts.

1.7 Comparison in the Period from c. 1200 to c. 1450

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1.7 Comparison in the Period from c. 1200 to c. 1450

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> State institutions
-> Political legitimacy
-> Social hierarchies
o State institutions
-> Comparison, c.1200-1450: China and Japan kept emperors.
-> Song China used exams; European nobles inherited power.
-> Both relied on elites to govern and collect revenues.
-> Song officials served emperors; nobles limited kings.
-> Delhi sultans used military elites, not Confucian exams.
-> Japan's shoguns held power; emperors retained prestige.
o Political legitimacy
-> China and Europe both tied legitimacy to sacred order.
-> China used Heaven's mandate; kings sought Church backing.
-> Mali's rulers used Islam alongside local traditions.
-> Mexica rulers linked warfare to tribute and sacrifice.
-> European popes could challenge kings' religious authority.
o Social hierarchies
-> China and Europe both had landholding elite hierarchies.
-> China prized scholar-officials; Europe privileged nobles.
-> Indian caste ranked inherited status and occupations.
-> Unlike caste, exams offered some mobility in China.
-> China and India preserved patriarchal family authority.
-> Foot binding marked elite Chinese women, not Europeans.

1.7 Comparison in the Period from c. 1200 to c. 1450

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Economic structures
-> Environmental adaptation
-> Religious communities
o Economic structures
-> Comparison, c.1200-1450: farming sustained most states.
-> China and Europe both drew revenues from peasant labor.
-> Song markets grew; European manors relied on labor dues.
-> Mali taxed gold trade; Swahili ports taxed ocean trade.
-> Both gained wealth from commerce, but via different routes.
-> Mexica took tribute; Inca rulers mobilized mit'a labor.
o Environmental adaptation
-> China and the Andes both adapted farming to terrain.
-> Chinese wet-rice farming supported dense populations.
-> Andean terraces expanded farming to support Inca rule.
-> Monsoon winds aided Swahili shipping, not Mali's caravans.
-> Camels enabled desert trade that enriched Mali's rulers.
o Religious communities
-> Christianity and Islam both linked distant communities.
-> Church clergy guided Christians; ulama interpreted Islam.
-> Sufis spread Islam; Buddhist monks spread their teachings.
-> Both used religious networks beyond political borders.
-> Bhakti devotion challenged caste barriers, not all caste.
-> Hindu and Buddhist traditions persisted under new rulers.

Unit 2: Networks of Exchange

2.1 The Silk Roads

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2.1 The Silk Roads

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Demand and regional connections
-> Mongol expansion and security
-> Transport and commercial innovations
o Demand and regional connections
-> c. 1200-1450: Silk Roads linked China to the Mediterranean.
-> Growing cities and elite demand expanded luxury trade.
-> Chinese silk and porcelain supplied distant consumers.
-> Central Asian horses and Persian textiles moved by land.
-> High transport costs favored luxuries over bulk goods.
-> Older routes persisted as trade volume and reach grew.
o Mongol expansion and security
-> 1200s Mongol conquests joined much of Eurasia under rule.
-> Conquest first devastated cities and disrupted commerce.
-> Later Pax Mongolica reduced risks across many routes.
-> Protection for merchants encouraged long-distance travel.
-> Passes and relay stations eased travel and communication.
-> Shared imperial links connected Yuan China and Persia.
o Transport and commercial innovations
-> Camel caravans carried goods across arid Central Asia.
-> Oasis towns supplied water, food, and places to exchange.
-> Caravanserai offered lodging, making journeys safer.
-> Bills of exchange reduced the need to carry metal coins.
-> Credit financed costly journeys, enabling more commerce.

2.1 The Silk Roads

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Commercial growth and urban centers
-> Cultural and technological diffusion
-> Environmental effects and network limits
o Commercial growth and urban centers
-> c. 1200-1450: Eurasian overland trade expanded exchange.
-> Increased traffic enriched oasis cities such as Kashgar.
-> Samarkand grew as a market linking regional merchants.
-> Merchants relayed goods; few traveled the entire network.
-> Urban markets supported artisans producing luxury goods.
-> Yuan paper money aided trade within China, not everywhere.
o Cultural and technological diffusion
-> Merchants and travelers carried ideas along trade routes.
-> Muslim traders and scholars spread Islam in Central Asia.
-> Buddhism persisted on routes despite Islam's expansion.
-> Marco Polo's accounts widened European knowledge of Asia.
-> Paper-making knowledge spread west, aiding written culture.
-> Gunpowder knowledge spread west, changing military tools.
o Environmental effects and network limits
-> Deserts and mountains funneled caravans through passes.
-> Trade and Mongol movements helped spread plague westward.
-> Black Death killed millions in Eurasia during the 1300s.
-> Deaths disrupted production and reduced labor supplies.
-> Mongol fragmentation weakened safety; exchange persisted.

2.2 The Mongol Empire and the Making of the Modern World

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2.2 The Mongol Empire and the Making of the Modern World

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Conquest and expansion
-> Imperial state building
-> Fragmentation and decline
o Conquest and expansion
-> Pastoral nomadism sustained skilled mounted archers.
-> Chinggis Khan united Mongol tribes in 1206.
-> Loyalty and military merit weakened rival clan power.
-> Mobile cavalry and coordinated tactics enabled conquest.
-> Captured engineers supplied siege skills against cities.
-> Conquests linked China, Central Asia, Persia, and Russia.
o Imperial state building
-> Mongols used local officials to tax settled populations.
-> Religious tolerance helped govern diverse conquered peoples.
-> Kublai Khan founded Yuan rule and defeated Song in 1279.
-> Yuan retained Chinese administration but favored Mongols.
-> Ilkhans ruled Persia; some adopted Islam for legitimacy.
-> Golden Horde collected tribute through Russian princes.
o Fragmentation and decline
-> Succession disputes fractured unified rule into khanates.
-> Yuan, Ilkhanate, Chagatai, and Golden Horde ruled regions.
-> Inter-khanate wars weakened wider imperial coordination.
-> Yuan fiscal strain and disasters fueled peasant rebellion.
-> Ming forces expelled Yuan from China in 1368.

2.2 The Mongol Empire and the Making of the Modern World

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Trade and communication
-> Cultural and environmental effects
-> Continuity and change
o Trade and communication
-> Mongol conquests joined Eurasian lands under related states.
-> Pax Mongolica: protection made overland travel safer.
-> Safer routes lowered risks, encouraging Silk Roads trade.
-> Merchant privileges and credit supported caravan commerce.
-> Yam relay stations sped imperial orders and diplomatic news.
-> Paiza passes granted authorized travelers access to supplies.
o Cultural and environmental effects
-> Mongol courts moved artisans, often forcibly, across Eurasia.
-> Relocated experts shared medicine and astronomical knowledge.
-> Contacts helped Chinese gunpowder knowledge spread westward.
-> Travelers such as Marco Polo widened knowledge of Asia.
-> Trade and troop movements helped plague spread in the 1300s.
-> Black Death mortality disrupted labor, markets, and revenues.
o Continuity and change
-> Mongols expanded Silk Roads that predated their conquests.
-> Silk and luxury trade persisted; imperial protection grew.
-> Conquest destroyed cities even as rulers later aided commerce.
-> Local religions endured despite conquest and elite migration.
-> Khanate wars reduced security; Eurasian exchange continued.

2.3 Exchange in the Indian Ocean

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2.3 Exchange in the Indian Ocean

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Causes of trade growth
-> Maritime technologies
-> Economic and political effects
o Causes of trade growth
-> After 1200, older Indian Ocean routes grew in volume.
-> Rising demand for spices and textiles drew merchants.
-> Chinese production supplied porcelain and silk exports.
-> Muslim merchant networks linked distant port markets.
-> Shared commercial ties eased credit and negotiation.
-> Port rulers protected commerce to gain customs revenue.
o Maritime technologies
-> Lateen sails helped ships tack against the wind.
-> Chinese junks used sternpost rudders for steering.
-> Magnetic compasses improved navigation offshore.
-> Mariners shared shipbuilding and navigational knowledge.
-> Larger ships moved bulk cargo more cheaply than caravans.
o Economic and political effects
-> Sea routes linked East Africa, Arabia, India, and China.
-> India exported cotton cloth; Southeast Asia sent spices.
-> Swahili ports exported gold and ivory from the interior.
-> Trade wealth expanded cities such as Kilwa and Calicut.
-> Malacca's strait location enriched its trading sultanate.
-> Zheng He's voyages (1405-1433) extended Ming diplomacy.

2.3 Exchange in the Indian Ocean

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Monsoons and maritime geography
-> Merchant diasporas
-> Cultural and environmental exchange
o Monsoons and maritime geography
-> In c. 1200-1450, seasonal winds structured ocean trade.
-> Summer monsoons aided voyages from Arabia toward India.
-> Winter wind reversals helped ships make return voyages.
-> Predictable winds let sailors schedule long crossings.
-> Waiting for wind changes prolonged merchants' port stays.
-> Natural harbors and narrow straits concentrated traffic.
o Merchant diasporas
-> Seasonal stays fostered foreign merchant communities.
-> Arab and Persian merchants settled in East African ports.
-> Muslim traders also formed communities in Indian ports.
-> Diaspora ties supplied contacts, credit, and market news.
-> Intermarriage linked foreign merchants to local families.
o Cultural and environmental exchange
-> Merchant contacts spread Islam without universal conquest.
-> Some Southeast Asian rulers adopted Islam and trade ties.
-> Swahili blended Bantu roots with Arabic loanwords.
-> Coastal Islamic practices coexisted with local traditions.
-> Sea trade moved crops, including citrus, into new regions.
-> Connected ports also enabled infectious disease to spread.

2.4 Trans-Saharan Trade Routes

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2.4 Trans-Saharan Trade Routes

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Demand and regional exchange
-> Desert transport and technology
-> Commercial growth and urbanization
o Demand and regional exchange
-> c. 1200-1450: trade linked West Africa and North Africa.
-> North African demand for gold drew merchants south.
-> Gold supplied Mediterranean markets and coinage.
-> Scarce salt in the savanna encouraged desert imports.
-> Merchants exchanged Saharan salt for West African gold.
-> Enslaved people and textiles also crossed the Sahara.
o Desert transport and technology
-> Aridity made water access essential to desert travel.
-> Camels tolerated desert conditions better than horses.
-> Improved camel saddles increased carrying capacity.
-> Large caravans pooled supplies and reduced attack risks.
-> Berber guides used desert knowledge to connect oases.
-> Oasis stops enabled crossings but constrained routes.
o Commercial growth and urbanization
-> Older routes expanded; camels were not new after 1200.
-> Desert routes joined river trade along the Niger.
-> Trade income enlarged markets in Timbuktu and Gao.
-> Merchant settlements connected distant trading regions.
-> Growing towns increased demand for food and artisans.

2.4 Trans-Saharan Trade Routes

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Mali's expansion and trade
-> Islam and communication
-> Social effects and continuities
o Mali's expansion and trade
-> Mali rose in the 1200s along West African trade routes.
-> Sundiata's conquests consolidated Mali's regional power.
-> Control of gold commerce and trade towns yielded taxes.
-> Trade revenue financed armies and further expansion.
-> Rulers protected routes, encouraging merchant travel.
-> Imperial rule linked Niger markets to Saharan caravans.
o Islam and communication
-> Muslim merchants carried Islam across Saharan routes.
-> Shared faith and Islamic law aided commercial trust.
-> Arabic connected traders, scholars, and royal courts.
-> Mansa Musa's 1324-1325 hajj publicized Mali's wealth.
-> His patronage supported mosques and Islamic learning.
-> Timbuktu drew scholars into wider Muslim networks.
o Social effects and continuities
-> Trade wealth strengthened rulers and merchant elites.
-> Demand for captives sustained forced migration north.
-> Islam spread most strongly in courts and trade towns.
-> Local religious practices persisted alongside Islam.
-> Mali expanded exchange without erasing local cultures.

2.5 Cultural Consequences of Connectivity

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2.5 Cultural Consequences of Connectivity

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Networks and religious diffusion
-> Islam and local adaptation
-> Buddhism and Asian traditions
o Networks and religious diffusion
-> c. 1200-1450 trade linked Afro-Eurasian belief systems.
-> Merchant diasporas carried religions to trading ports.
-> Monsoon routes brought Muslim traders to Southeast Asia.
-> Caravan cities hosted travelers, scholars, and clerics.
-> Mongol protection eased travel across much of Eurasia.
-> Religious tolerance under many Mongol rulers aided contact.
o Islam and local adaptation
-> Sufi teachers spread Islam through personal instruction.
-> Sufis adapted to local customs, encouraging conversion.
-> Indian Ocean trade helped Islam spread in coastal Asia.
-> Muslim merchants shaped Swahili urban religious life.
-> Trans-Saharan trade linked Mali to Islamic scholarship.
-> Islam blended with local customs; conversion was uneven.
o Buddhism and Asian traditions
-> Monks and merchants carried Buddhist texts across Asia.
-> Tibetan Buddhism gained patronage at the Yuan court.
-> Theravada Buddhism expanded in mainland Southeast Asia.
-> Hindu traditions persisted in Southeast Asian courts.
-> Neo-Confucian learning spread from China to Korea and Japan.

2.5 Cultural Consequences of Connectivity

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Scholarship and knowledge exchange
-> Travelers and cultural understanding
-> Technology and cultural change
o Scholarship and knowledge exchange
-> c. 1200-1450 exchange carried ideas as well as goods.
-> Trade cities drew scholars, linking centers of learning.
-> Islamic scholars preserved and extended Greek learning.
-> Arabic-to-Latin translations enriched European learning.
-> Hindu-Arabic numerals eased calculation in European trade.
-> Mongol courts brought Persian and Chinese scholars together.
o Travelers and cultural understanding
-> Trade routes and patronage enabled long-distance journeys.
-> Ibn Battuta described Muslim societies across Afro-Eurasia.
-> Shared Islamic law helped him work abroad as a judge.
-> Marco Polo's account widened European knowledge of Asia.
-> Margery Kempe's pilgrimages linked Christian holy sites.
-> Travel accounts conveyed customs but reflected biases.
o Technology and cultural change
-> Paper spread west from China before 1200; use kept growing.
-> Cheaper writing materials aided scholarship and records.
-> Chinese gunpowder knowledge spread west through contact.
-> Compass use spread, helping sailors navigate trade routes.
-> Imported techniques were adapted, not copied unchanged.

2.6 Environmental Consequences of Connectivity

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2.6 Environmental Consequences of Connectivity

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Crop diffusion
-> Champa rice
-> Agricultural landscapes
o Crop diffusion
-> Afro-Eurasian exchange spread crops, c. 1200-1450.
-> Merchants and migrants carried seeds and farming skills.
-> Indian Ocean links spread crops between tropical regions.
-> Bananas reached Africa from Southeast Asia before 1200.
-> Their continued spread expanded food supplies in Africa.
o Champa rice
-> Champa rice came from what is now central Vietnam.
-> Introduced to China in the 1000s, it spread after 1200.
-> Early ripening allowed multiple harvests in suitable areas.
-> Drought resistance reduced vulnerability to dry spells.
-> Irrigation and farming skills helped realize these gains.
-> Higher yields supported population growth and urbanization.
o Agricultural landscapes
-> Population growth increased demand for cultivated land.
-> Rice terraces expanded farming onto Chinese hillsides.
-> Irrigation changed water use and supported intensive crops.
-> Clearing forests for fields reduced woodland habitats.
-> Bananas supported denser settlement in parts of Africa.
-> Climate and water access limited where new crops thrived.

2.6 Environmental Consequences of Connectivity

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Plague transmission
-> Black Death
-> Demographic consequences
o Plague transmission
-> Expanded trade, c. 1200-1450, also carried pathogens.
-> Mongol rule linked Eurasian routes and eased movement.
-> Caravans and ships carried infected animals and fleas.
-> Yersinia pestis bacteria caused plague, not trade itself.
-> Rodent-flea cycles helped plague persist and spread.
-> Connected ports exposed distant populations to infection.
o Black Death
-> Plague spread west across Eurasia in the 1300s.
-> Black Sea links carried plague into Mediterranean ports.
-> Europe's major outbreak occurred in 1347-1351.
-> North Africa and the Middle East also suffered epidemics.
-> European deaths totaled roughly one-third or more.
-> Mortality varied; recurrent outbreaks hindered recovery.
o Demographic consequences
-> Mass deaths reduced labor supplies and disrupted farming.
-> Abandoned fields reverted to pasture or woodland.
-> Labor scarcity raised workers' bargaining power in Europe.
-> Some elites imposed wage controls to resist higher pay.
-> Serfdom weakened in parts of Europe, not everywhere.

2.7 Comparison in Networks of Exchange

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2.7 Comparison in Networks of Exchange

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Shared drivers of expansion
-> Transport and geographic differences
-> Goods and commercial institutions
o Shared drivers of expansion
-> c. 1200-1450: all three networks grew on older routes.
-> Silk Roads, Indian Ocean, and Sahara linked regions.
-> Demand for foreign goods drew merchants into all three.
-> Mongol protection eased Silk Road travel across Eurasia.
-> Mali secured Saharan routes; gold trade funded rulers.
-> Port rulers fostered ocean trade to collect customs.
o Transport and geographic differences
-> Silk Roads crossed Eurasia using overland caravans.
-> Saharan caravans linked West Africa to North Africa.
-> Camels enabled both land networks to cross dry regions.
-> Ocean sailors timed voyages to seasonal monsoon winds.
-> Compasses and improved ships made sea travel easier.
-> Ships carried larger loads at lower cost than caravans.
o Goods and commercial institutions
-> Land costs favored valuable goods: silk, gold, spices.
-> Ocean ships also carried bulk goods, including timber.
-> Saharan trade paired West African gold with desert salt.
-> Caravanserai sheltered traders; ports supplied ships.
-> Credit and merchant ties reduced long-distance risks.

2.7 Comparison in Networks of Exchange

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Cultural and technological diffusion
-> Environmental consequences
-> Uneven integration and continuity
o Cultural and technological diffusion
-> c. 1200-1450: all networks moved ideas as well as goods.
-> Muslim merchants spread Islam across all three networks.
-> Sufis aided conversion in Central and Southeast Asia.
-> Mali's rulers adopted Islam but local beliefs persisted.
-> Ocean diasporas fostered Swahili Islamic coastal culture.
-> Silk Roads carried Chinese gunpowder knowledge westward.
o Environmental consequences
-> Eurasian routes helped spread plague in the 1300s.
-> Overland and sea links carried infection toward Europe.
-> Black Death deaths disrupted labor and raised some wages.
-> Saharan exchange did not share Europe's plague impact.
-> Ocean exchange spread crops such as bananas to Africa.
-> New crops supported population growth where soils suited.
o Uneven integration and continuity
-> All networks enriched trading cities and merchant elites.
-> Samarkand, Kilwa, and Timbuktu grew as exchange centers.
-> Ocean trade linked many states, not one unifying empire.
-> Mongol fragmentation weakened Silk Road protections.
-> Despite growth, local trade and older beliefs persisted.

Unit 3: Land-Based Empires, c. 1450–1750

3.1 Empires Expand

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3.1 Empires Expand

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Gunpowder and expansion
-> Ottoman and Safavid empires
-> Mughal expansion in South Asia
o Gunpowder and expansion
-> Cannons breached walls; firearms aided conquest.
-> Armies also needed money, supplies, and skilled commanders.
-> Russian fur traders used armed force to secure trade.
-> Rulers sought land, taxes, trade, and security.
-> Conquest let rulers tax diverse peoples and resources.
-> Tax revenue supported armies and further state-building.
o Ottoman and Safavid empires
-> Ottomans expanded in southeastern Europe and the Middle East.
-> Cannons helped Mehmed II take Constantinople in 1453.
-> Ottoman routes and cities increased trade revenue.
-> Safavids built an empire in Persia under Shah Ismail.
-> Chaldiran (1514): Ottoman firearms defeated Safavid cavalry.
-> Ottoman-Safavid rivalry mixed faith and political competition.
o Mughal expansion in South Asia
-> Babur ruled Kabul before founding Mughal power in India.
-> At Panipat (1526), Babur's guns aided victory in India.
-> Mughals expanded across South Asia for land and revenue.
-> Local alliances helped govern conquered populations.
-> Land taxes funded armies; resistance limited imperial control.

3.1 Empires Expand

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Qing expansion and frontier rule
-> Russian expansion across Siberia
-> Rivalry and costs of empire
o Qing expansion and frontier rule
-> Manchu rulers conquered Ming China; they took Beijing in 1644.
-> Qing took Taiwan in 1683; Khalkha Mongols submitted in 1691.
-> Conquest secured borders and access to frontier trade.
-> Manchus imposed queues on Han men as signs of submission.
-> Qing allied with Mongol elites, adapting frontier rule.
-> Kangxi defeated Dzungar forces in Mongolia in 1696.
o Russian expansion across Siberia
-> Russia sought furs, tribute, land, and Pacific access.
-> Cossacks crossed Siberia; firearms aided armed expeditions.
-> Forts and tribute extended tsarist authority eastward.
-> Fur trade funded expansion but displaced local peoples.
-> Siberian peoples paid yasak fur tribute under coercion.
o Rivalry and costs of empire
-> Ottomans and Safavids fought over borderlands and influence.
-> Safavids and Mughals contested strategic Kandahar.
-> Russia and Qing competed over Siberian frontier claims.
-> Nerchinsk (1689) set a border and regulated trade.
-> Empires used war and diplomacy to secure routes and resources.
-> Resistance and long supply lines raised conquest costs.

3.2 Empires: Administration

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3.2 Empires: Administration

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Bureaucratic and military service
-> Taxation and imperial capacity
-> Central authority and local elites
o Bureaucratic and military service
-> Qing rulers retained Confucian exams and scholar-officials.
-> Exams recruited educated men; wealthy elites dominated office.
-> Ottoman devshirme coerced Christian boys into state service.
-> Converts could become Janissaries or senior administrators.
-> Janissaries formed salaried professional infantry.
-> Janissary recruitment later widened beyond devshirme.
o Taxation and imperial capacity
-> Ottoman tax farmers bid for rights to collect revenue.
-> Tax farming raised cash but encouraged taxpayer exploitation.
-> Mughal zamindars collected land revenue from peasants.
-> Akbar's surveys helped assess land taxes.
-> Revenue financed armies, officials, and further expansion.
-> Local bargaining constrained what rulers could extract.
o Central authority and local elites
-> Mughal mansabdars held ranks and supplied cavalry.
-> Rank and revenue assignments tied nobles to the emperor.
-> Qing gentry mediated disputes and helped local officials.
-> Officials depended on local knowledge and elite cooperation.
-> Such ties extended state power but limited direct control.

3.2 Empires: Administration

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Religion and imperial legitimacy
-> Art and monumental architecture
-> Limits on central power
o Religion and imperial legitimacy
-> Ottoman sultans used Sunni Islam to support their authority.
-> Safavids promoted Twelver Shi'a Islam as a state religion.
-> Qing emperors invoked Heaven's mandate and Confucian duties.
-> France's Louis XIV claimed divine right to rule.
-> Akbar built Mughal loyalty through Hindu elite alliances.
-> Religious claims did not require identical policies.
o Art and monumental architecture
-> Versailles displayed royal grandeur and drew nobles to court.
-> Court patronage tied French nobles to Louis XIV's favor.
-> Shah Jahan's Taj Mahal displayed Mughal wealth and piety.
-> Qing portraits depicted ritual and military authority.
-> Ottoman mosque complexes linked piety with public charity.
-> Monumental building displayed command of labor and revenue.
o Limits on central power
-> Janissaries gained interests that could challenge sultans.
-> Mughal zamindars bargained over revenue and resisted demands.
-> Heavy taxes could fund rule but also provoke resistance.
-> Aztec tribute lists recorded subject towns' obligations.
-> Before 1521, tribute sustained Aztec nobles and armies.

3.3 Empires: Belief Systems

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3.3 Empires: Belief Systems

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Protestant Reformation
-> Catholic responses
-> Confessional Europe
o Protestant Reformation
-> Luther attacked indulgence sales in 1517.
-> Luther taught justification by faith, not works.
-> Protestants put scripture above papal authority.
-> Printing spread Luther's arguments quickly across Europe.
-> Some princes protected reform and gained church lands.
-> Lutheranism and Calvinism became Protestant traditions.
-> Calvinists stressed predestination and discipline.
o Catholic responses
-> Catholic leaders answered Protestant challenges with reform.
-> Trent upheld church tradition alongside scripture.
-> Trent also addressed clerical abuses and improved training.
-> Jesuits founded schools and carried Catholic missions abroad.
-> Seven sacraments and papal authority endured Catholic reform.
o Confessional Europe
-> Religious division fueled Europe's Thirty Years' War.
-> Catholic France fought Habsburgs for dynastic power, too.
-> France granted Huguenot rights in 1598, revoked them in 1685.
-> Vernacular Bibles widened lay access to religious debate.
-> Christianity endured while confessional unity fractured.

3.3 Empires: Belief Systems

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Sunni Ottoman and Shi'a Safavid identity
-> Sikhism in a diverse Punjab
-> Faith, state, continuity, and change
o Sunni Ottoman and Shi'a Safavid identity
-> Ottomans were Sunni; Safavids made Twelver Shi'a official.
-> This distinguished Safavid Persia from Sunni rivals.
-> Ottoman-Safavid rivalry concerned land and political power.
-> War intensified a Sunni-Shi'a split rooted in early Islam.
-> Both empires used religious identity to support authority.
-> Sectarian identity could unite subjects and define rivals.
-> Neither empire's policy made its people religiously uniform.
o Sikhism in a diverse Punjab
-> Guru Nanak taught one-God devotion in Punjab.
-> Sikhism formed a distinct faith amid Hindu-Muslim interaction.
-> Sikh teachings challenged caste and stressed human equality.
-> Langar community meals put Sikh equality into practice.
o Faith, state, continuity, and change
-> Akbar allied with Hindus and encouraged tolerance.
-> Aurangzeb later restored jizya on non-Muslims, a policy shift.
-> Hindu traditions persisted under Muslim Mughal rulers.
-> Empires used faith to legitimize rule over diverse peoples.
-> Policies varied; diversity did not guarantee equality.
-> State support shaped faith, but local practice also endured.

3.4 Comparison in Land-Based Empires

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3.4 Comparison in Land-Based Empires

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Expansion and military organization
-> Geography and imperial motives
-> Bureaucratic recruitment
o Expansion and military organization
-> Both Ottomans and Mughals used cannon-equipped armies.
-> Janissaries drew pay; mansabdars often held revenue grants.
-> Janissaries were infantry; mansabdars mustered cavalry.
-> Qing banners organized Manchu, Mongol, and Han soldiers.
-> Qing banners were hereditary; devshirme recruited outsiders.
-> Ottoman and Mughal firearms needed taxes and local allies.
-> Cavalry persisted in Ottoman and Mughal armies.
o Geography and imperial motives
-> Russia sought Siberian furs; Qing sought frontier security.
-> Both used forts to secure frontiers and trade.
-> Siberia's rivers aided Cossacks; Qing crossed steppe routes.
-> Unlike Russia's fur tribute, Mughal wealth relied on farms.
-> Agrarian density made land taxes lucrative for Mughals.
o Bureaucratic recruitment
-> Ottomans coerced devshirme boys; Qing used Confucian exams.
-> Both trained officials to serve imperial courts.
-> Qing exams favored gentry; devshirme bypassed birth elites.
-> Qing kept exams to enlist Chinese elite cooperation.
-> Ottoman converts' dependence aimed to bind them to sultans.

3.4 Comparison in Land-Based Empires

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Revenue and local elites
-> Religion and monumental authority
-> Governing imperial diversity
o Revenue and local elites
-> Ottoman tax farmers and Mughal zamindars collected revenue.
-> Both linked imperial demands to local rural communities.
-> Tax farmers bought rights; zamindars held local land claims.
-> Both funded armies, but local collectors retained leverage.
-> Distance made both courts depend on intermediaries.
o Religion and monumental authority
-> Louis XIV claimed divine right; Qing used Heaven's mandate.
-> Both justified kingship through a sacred political order.
-> French Versailles and Mughal Taj Mahal exalted dynasties.
-> Versailles hosted nobles; the Taj Mahal was a royal tomb.
-> Both used patronage, but buildings served different roles.
-> Such displays reinforced claims, not total central control.
o Governing imperial diversity
-> Ottomans were Sunni; Safavids promoted Twelver Shi'a.
-> Both used Islam; rival identities sharpened state conflict.
-> Ottomans kept jizya; Akbar abolished it in Mughal lands.
-> Akbar recruited Hindus; Qing retained Han scholar-officials.
-> Both co-opted subject elites rather than erasing difference.
-> Mughal and Qing rulers mixed accommodation with coercion.

Unit 3 Supplement 1: Military and Imperial Government

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Unit 3 Supplement 1: Military and Imperial Government

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Safavid military centralization
-> Ottoman reach and caliphal claims
-> Gunpowder and limits on conquest
o Safavid military centralization
-> Abbas I (1588-1629) expanded Safavid royal forces.
-> Qizilbash chiefs held tribal troops, offices, and local power.
-> His ghulams included enslaved Caucasian converts to Islam.
-> Royal pay and offices made ghulams dependent on the shah.
-> They checked tribal chiefs; Qizilbash cavalry remained in use.
-> Abbas redirected more taxes and silk profits to royal forces.
-> Isfahan, Abbas's capital, displayed power through mosques.
o Ottoman reach and caliphal claims
-> Ottomans conquered Mamluk Egypt in North Africa in 1517.
-> Rule spread through much of North Africa, but not Morocco.
-> Sultans claimed to be caliphs: heads of the Muslim community.
-> Protecting Mecca and Medina strengthened religious prestige.
-> Caliphal claims were contested, not accepted by all Muslims.
o Gunpowder and limits on conquest
-> Morocco invaded Songhai in 1591 for trade and revenue.
-> At Tondibi, Moroccan firearms helped defeat Songhai forces.
-> Internal succession disputes also weakened Songhai.
-> At Chaldiran (1514), Ottomans defeated Ismail I's army.
-> Supply problems soon forced their withdrawal from Tabriz.

Unit 3 Supplement 1: Military and Imperial Government

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Revenue and dependent service
-> Religious communities and taxation
o Revenue and dependent service
-> Tax farmers prepaid rulers for rights to collect state taxes.
-> Mughal jagirs assigned tax income, not land ownership.
-> Emperors reassigned many jagirs, limiting nobles' local power.
-> Inca mit'a required rotating labor for state projects.
-> Ming silver taxes pushed peasants to sell crops for money.
-> French intendants enforced royal policy in the provinces.
-> Appointed officials reduced dependence on hereditary nobles.
-> Boyars, Russian nobles, served tsars for control over serfs.
-> Serfs were peasants bound to estates, owing labor or dues.
-> Tokugawa samurai, paid warriors, often became officials.
o Religious communities and taxation
-> Millet practices varied among Ottoman religious communities.
-> Non-Muslim leaders oversaw worship, marriage, and schools.
-> Delegation reduced direct Ottoman administrative burdens.
-> Community authority remained subject to Ottoman rule.
-> Communities could also use imperial Islamic courts.
-> Jizya was a poll tax on eligible adult non-Muslim men.
-> Women and children were exempt; rates could vary by means.
-> Dhimmi protection allowed worship, not legal equality.
-> Jizya did not itself grant communal self-government.

Unit 3 Supplement 2: Beliefs, Legitimacy, and Comparison

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Unit 3 Supplement 2: Beliefs, Legitimacy, and Comparison

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Reformation and church authority
-> Sunni and Shi'a leadership
-> Religious legitimation and diversity
o Reformation and church authority
-> Indulgences remitted temporal penalties for forgiven sins.
-> Their sale fed charges of church corruption, fueling reform.
-> Luther taught justification: acceptance by God through faith.
-> Calvin's predestination held that God determines salvation.
-> Henry VIII broke with Rome and headed England's Church.
-> Royal supremacy put church offices and wealth under the crown.
-> The Council of Trent defended doctrine and reformed clergy.
o Sunni and Shi'a leadership
-> Sunnis recognized the first four caliphs as rightly guided.
-> Shi'a saw Ali and his line as Muhammad's rightful successors.
-> Twelver Shi'a revered twelve Imams as religious authorities.
-> Ottomans backed Sunni clergy; Safavids backed Shi'a clergy.
o Religious legitimation and diversity
-> Divine right cast obedience to God-given kings as sacred.
-> Qing claimed Heaven's mandate, conditional on moral rule.
-> Inca sun temples displayed rulers' claimed divine ancestry.
-> Askia Muhammad promoted Islam to legitimize Songhai rule.
-> Qing backed Tibetan Buddhism to court Mongols and Tibetans.
-> Orthodox clergy supported Russian tsars and taught obedience.

Unit 3 Supplement 2: Beliefs, Legitimacy, and Comparison

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Accommodation and cultural patronage
-> Religious division and settlement
-> American tribute and sacred authority
o Accommodation and cultural patronage
-> Mughal Akbar recruited Rajputs, Hindu warrior elites.
-> Their troops and support eased rule over a Hindu majority.
-> Akbar commissioned the Akbarnama as an official history.
-> Funding encouraged authors to portray rulers favorably.
-> Tokugawa daimyo were regional lords with their own domains.
-> Alternate attendance brought daimyo regularly to Edo.
-> Costly stays and family hostages helped shoguns check lords.
o Religious division and settlement
-> Augsburg (1555) let princes choose Catholic or Lutheran rule.
-> Westphalia (1648) recognized Calvinism in Holy Roman lands.
-> These were rulers' rights, not full religious freedom for all.
-> Protestant and Catholic reforms both expanded Christianity.
o American tribute and sacred authority
-> Mexica rulers used human sacrifice to uphold cosmic order.
-> Warfare supplied captives, tying military and priestly power.
-> Tribute goods sustained Tenochtitlan, nobles, and armies.
-> Inca mit'a required labor, unlike Mexica tribute in goods.
-> Both linked sacred legitimacy to extraction from subjects.
-> Before European conquest, both expanded without gunpowder.

Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnections, c. 1450–1750

Eight official topics · 16 note pages · 384 note lines. Unit 4 inks are scoped here without recoloring earlier units. Light blue identifies topic titles; other inks identify sections and selected keywords.

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4.1 Technological Innovations from 1450 to 1750

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4.1 Technological Innovations from 1450 to 1750

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Knowledge across cultures
-> Navigational instruments
-> Sails and steering
o Knowledge across cultures
-> Europeans adapted Asian and Islamic maritime knowledge.
-> Chinese compass use spread west through trade contacts.
-> Islamic scholars preserved and extended Greek astronomy.
-> Mediterranean contacts transmitted mathematical learning.
-> Indian Ocean pilots knew routes long before Europeans.
-> These exchanges enabled innovation, not isolated invention.
o Navigational instruments
-> A magnetic compass indicated direction beyond sight of land.
-> An astrolabe measured the angle of the sun or stars.
-> Mariners used these angles to estimate latitude at sea.
-> Latitude measures distance north or south of the equator.
-> Astronomical charts recorded positions of heavenly bodies.
-> Coastal charts mapped ports, hazards, and sailing routes.
o Sails and steering
-> Lateen sails spread through older Mediterranean networks.
-> Their triangular shape aided sailing at angles to the wind.
-> Tacking used angled courses to make progress upwind.
-> Square sails supplied power when winds blew from behind.
-> Combining sail types balanced maneuverability and speed.

4.1 Technological Innovations from 1450 to 1750

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Ocean ship designs
-> Winds and return routes
-> Trade and naval power
o Ocean ship designs
-> Portuguese caravels were small, maneuverable sailing ships.
-> Shallow drafts aided coastal exploration along Africa.
-> Larger carracks carried provisions and cargo across oceans.
-> Their storage supported longer voyages far from supplies.
-> Dutch fluyts carried bulk freight with relatively few crew.
-> Lower operating costs helped Dutch shipping compete.
o Winds and return routes
-> Sailors combined instruments with practical ocean knowledge.
-> Atlantic trade winds aided westward tropical crossings.
-> Westerlies farther north helped ships return toward Europe.
-> Portuguese sailors used ocean loops to find favorable winds.
-> Indian Ocean monsoons reversed with seasonal changes.
-> Pilots timed departures to winds rather than sail directly.
o Trade and naval power
-> Larger cargoes lowered transport costs per unit of goods.
-> Better route knowledge made repeated ocean voyages feasible.
-> Shipboard cannon helped fleets threaten rival ports.
-> Armed shipping linked commercial travel to imperial power.
-> Technology still required money, crews, and state backing.

4.2 Exploration: Causes and Events from 1450 to 1750

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4.2 Exploration: Causes and Events from 1450 to 1750

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Motives and state support
-> Portuguese routes
-> Spanish voyages
o Motives and state support
-> Asian spices and luxury goods promised high trade profits.
-> Europeans sought sea routes around costly intermediaries.
-> Existing overland trade continued; it was not fully blocked.
-> Monarchs pursued customs revenue, prestige, and rival claims.
-> Christian expansion accompanied commercial ambitions.
-> Royal funding and privileges helped finance risky voyages.
o Portuguese routes
-> Portugal sponsored voyages down Africa's Atlantic coast.
-> African trade supplied gold and enslaved people to buyers.
-> Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1488.
-> Vasco da Gama reached India's Calicut by sea in 1498.
-> African and Asian pilots helped Europeans navigate routes.
-> Armed fleets and coastal posts sought a share of Asian trade.
o Spanish voyages
-> Spain backed Columbus's westward voyage to Asia in 1492.
-> He reached inhabited Caribbean islands, not Asian markets.
-> Repeated voyages began sustained Atlantic colonization.
-> Spain claimed lands and sought wealth and Christian converts.
-> Indigenous societies already had their own trade networks.

4.2 Exploration: Causes and Events from 1450 to 1750

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Atlantic and Pacific links
-> Northern searches
-> Economic consequences
o Atlantic and Pacific links
-> Iberian rivalry led to the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494.
-> It divided claims without Indigenous peoples' consent.
-> Portugal claimed Brazil after Cabral's arrival in 1500.
-> Spain backed Magellan's westward expedition in 1519.
-> Magellan died; Elcano's survivors completed it in 1522.
-> The circumnavigation demonstrated linked ocean routes.
o Northern searches
-> England, France, and Dutch merchants also sought Asia.
-> Northern voyages searched for a Northwest Passage.
-> John Cabot sailed under English sponsorship in 1497.
-> French voyages explored the St. Lawrence River region.
-> Hudson sailed for the Dutch in 1609 seeking an Asian route.
-> Failed passage searches still supported colonial claims.
o Economic consequences
-> New routes connected Atlantic commerce to Asian markets.
-> Portuguese ports tried to channel spices through their ships.
-> American conquest later yielded silver and plantation crops.
-> Exploration intensified competition for ports and resources.
-> Oceanic expansion reshaped, but did not erase, older trade.

4.3 Columbian Exchange

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4.3 Columbian Exchange

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Hemispheric contact
-> Epidemics and population
-> Animals and landscapes
o Hemispheric contact
-> Voyages after 1492 sustained links across the Atlantic.
-> The Columbian Exchange moved organisms between hemispheres.
-> Ships carried crops, livestock, microbes, and disease vectors.
-> Settlers deliberately imported familiar foods and animals.
-> Mosquitoes spread malaria; rats also crossed on ships.
-> Colonization made these transfers repeated and far-reaching.
o Epidemics and population
-> Smallpox and measles spread into Indigenous communities.
-> Many Americans lacked prior exposure to these pathogens.
-> Epidemics caused catastrophic losses in many regions.
-> Warfare, forced labor, and hunger worsened population loss.
-> Deaths disrupted farming, leadership, and community defense.
-> Unequal disease effects aided conquest but did not ensure it.
o Animals and landscapes
-> Europeans brought horses, pigs, cattle, sheep, and goats.
-> Horses transformed transport and some Indigenous warfare.
-> Cattle expanded ranching and supplied meat, hides, and tallow.
-> Livestock grazing damaged some Indigenous fields and habitats.
-> Introduced species changed land use and ecological balances.

4.3 Columbian Exchange

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> American foods abroad
-> Crops in the Americas
-> Plantations and forced migration
o American foods abroad
-> Maize, potatoes, and cassava spread into Afro-Eurasia.
-> Potatoes supplied calories on small plots in parts of Europe.
-> Cassava and maize became important foods in parts of Africa.
-> Maize and sweet potatoes expanded cultivation in China.
-> Tomatoes and chilies changed cuisines across many regions.
-> New foods supported population growth unevenly over time.
o Crops in the Americas
-> Europeans introduced wheat, citrus, bananas, and sugarcane.
-> Wheat supplied settlers and expanded commercial farming.
-> Sugarcane became a major Caribbean and Brazilian cash crop.
-> Cash crops were grown for sale to Europe and the Middle East.
-> Enslaved Africans brought food knowledge and farming skills.
-> African foodways included okra and rice-growing expertise.
o Plantations and forced migration
-> Export demand encouraged large plantations and land clearing.
-> Sugar cultivation and processing demanded intensive labor.
-> Colonists coerced Indigenous labor and enslaved Africans.
-> Atlantic slave trading forcibly relocated African communities.
-> Profits, policy, and population losses shaped labor choices.

4.4 Maritime Empires Established

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4.4 Maritime Empires Established

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Maritime conquest and trade
-> African and Asian power
o Maritime conquest and trade
-> Portugal seized strategic ports such as Goa and Malacca.
-> Portugal's Elmina fort (1482) stood on Africa's Gold Coast.
-> Patrols seized ships lacking compulsory cartaz trade passes.
-> Spanish conquests toppled Mexica and Inca imperial centers.
-> Indigenous allies and epidemics helped small invading armies.
-> Spain built territorial colonies; Portugal colonized Brazil.
-> Dutch merchants held Asian posts and Caribbean colonies.
-> France developed Canadian fur trade and Caribbean colonies.
-> Britain founded mainland and Caribbean plantation colonies.
-> Political, religious, and trade rivalries drove expansion.
o African and Asian power
-> Trade and Christian diplomacy boosted Kongo's royal influence.
-> Slave trading also weakened Kongo and fueled conflicts.
-> Asante rose around 1700 through conquest and commerce.
-> Gold and slave trades helped Asante obtain arms and wealth.
-> Ming trade limits sought economic and political control.
-> Tokugawa Japan limited Europeans to curb Christian influence.
-> Dutch merchants traded at Dejima under strict supervision.
-> Gujarati, Arab, and Javanese merchants remained active.
-> Indian Ocean trade flourished despite European disruption.

4.4 Maritime Empires Established

Page 2 · Lines 25–48

o Overview
-> Indigenous and contracted labor
-> Slavery and plantation demand
o Indigenous and contracted labor
-> Colonial American economies relied heavily on agriculture.
-> Encomienda granted claims to Indigenous tribute or labor.
-> Colonists owed protection and Christian instruction in law.
-> Abuse was common; grants were not legal ownership of people.
-> Haciendas were large farming or ranching estates.
-> Labor included tenancy, wage work, and debt bondage.
-> Inca mit'a had required rotational labor for state projects.
-> Spain adapted mita drafts to compel labor in Andean mines.
-> Indentured servants worked fixed terms for passage or debt.
-> Term contracts differed from lifelong hereditary enslavement.
o Slavery and plantation demand
-> African slavery predated European Atlantic colonization.
-> Household enslavement and older export routes continued.
-> Captives still went to Mediterranean and Indian Ocean markets.
-> American sugar plantations sharply increased labor demand.
-> Atlantic chattel slavery legally treated people as property.
-> In many colonies, enslaved status passed through mothers.
-> Racial categories increasingly justified hereditary bondage.
-> Forced migration separated families and reshaped populations.
-> Indigenous and African coerced labor coexisted in colonies.

4.5 Maritime Empires Maintained and Developed

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4.5 Maritime Empires Maintained and Developed

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o Overview
-> Mercantilism and companies
-> Silver and production networks
o Mercantilism and companies
-> Mercantilism tied regulated commerce to state power.
-> Rulers sought bullion (gold and silver) and export earnings.
-> Colonies supplied resources and bought home-country goods.
-> Trade rules reserved colonial shipping for favored fleets.
-> Joint-stock companies pooled investors' capital and risks.
-> Royal charters granted monopolies over designated trades.
-> English and Dutch East India companies held trade charters.
-> Some companies could build forts, wage war, and make treaties.
-> Anglo-Dutch wars reflected rivalry over shipping and trade.
-> Profits and customs helped finance fleets and imperial power.
o Silver and production networks
-> Potosi and Mexican mines supplied Spanish American silver.
-> Silver crossed the Atlantic and the Pacific via Manila.
-> Acapulco-Manila galleons linked American and Asian markets.
-> Chinese silver taxes increased demand for imported bullion.
-> Merchants exchanged silver for Chinese silk and porcelain.
-> Asian merchants and older regional markets stayed important.
-> Export demand intensified Indian cotton and Chinese silk work.
-> European households also produced wool and linen for sale.
-> Peasant households and artisan workshops remained important.

4.5 Maritime Empires Maintained and Developed

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o Overview
-> Atlantic societies and families
-> Religion and cultural encounters
o Atlantic societies and families
-> Atlantic routes moved manufactures, crops, wealth, and people.
-> Enslaved Africans endured the violent Middle Passage crossing.
-> Plantation exports tied American labor to overseas demand.
-> Actual routes varied; not all voyages formed a triangle.
-> Slave raiding and sales tore apart African families.
-> Male-heavy exports altered gender balances in some regions.
-> Women often assumed added farming and household burdens.
-> African, European, and Indigenous peoples formed new cultures.
-> Food, language, music, and worship changed through contact.
o Religion and cultural encounters
-> Catholic missionaries spread Christianity in colonial lands.
-> Mission churches linked conversion to imperial settlement.
-> Islam also spread through merchants and teachers in Asia.
-> Both faiths crossed cultures; routes and patrons differed.
-> Iberian missions often relied on conquest and state backing.
-> Suppression of Pueblo rituals fueled resistance to missions.
-> Syncretism combined elements of distinct religious traditions.
-> Indigenous and African rites could adapt Catholic observances.
-> Kongo crucifixes (1500s-1600s) recast Christian symbols.
-> Some crucifixes linked Christ with ancestral beliefs.

4.6 Internal and External Challenges to State Power from 1450 to 1750

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4.6 Internal and External Challenges to State Power from 1450 to 1750

Page 1 · Lines 1–24

o Overview
-> Colonial resistance
-> African diplomacy and warfare
-> Regional challenges in Asia
o Colonial resistance
-> Spanish forced labor and ritual bans burdened the Pueblo.
-> Po'pay led the Pueblo Revolt in New Mexico in 1680.
-> Rebels expelled Spain; Spaniards returned in the 1690s.
-> Wampanoag chief Metacom resisted English land seizure.
-> His coalition fought in New England in 1675-1676.
-> Colonial victory brought Native displacement and enslavement.
o African diplomacy and warfare
-> Nzinga ruled Ndongo and later Matamba in central Africa.
-> Portuguese conquest and slave raiding threatened her power.
-> She used conversion and negotiation with armed resistance.
-> Alliance with the Dutch challenged Portuguese strength.
-> Matamba sheltered fugitives and built military resources.
-> Nzinga preserved a state while participating in slave trading.
o Regional challenges in Asia
-> Mughal expansion faced Maratha opposition in the Deccan.
-> Shivaji built regional power through forts and mobile warfare.
-> A coronation in 1674 asserted his independent kingship.
-> Prolonged conflict strained Mughal armies and revenues.
-> Resistance could build rival states rather than end monarchy.

4.6 Internal and External Challenges to State Power from 1450 to 1750

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o Overview
-> Elite resistance in Europe
-> Frontier and peasant revolt
-> Resistance to enslavement
o Elite resistance in Europe
-> French royal taxation and centralization provoked the Fronde.
-> In 1648-1653, magistrates and nobles challenged the crown.
-> These elites defended privileges, not equal rights for all.
-> Royal victory helped Louis XIV consolidate authority.
-> Nobles retained status despite losing this challenge.
-> Rulers negotiated with elites as well as crushing revolt.
o Frontier and peasant revolt
-> Russian rulers extended control over frontier communities.
-> Cossacks valued military privileges and local autonomy.
-> Stenka Razin led a major revolt in 1670-1671.
-> Cossacks and discontented peasants challenged officials.
-> The state crushed the revolt and executed Razin.
-> Frontier fighters could serve rulers or resist their demands.
o Resistance to enslavement
-> Maroons escaped slavery and formed autonomous communities.
-> Brazilian Palmares resisted colonial attacks in the 1600s.
-> Settlements used defense, agriculture, and regional exchange.
-> Colonial forces destroyed Palmares's main center in 1694.
-> Escape and organized resistance challenged slavery's power.

4.7 Changing Social Hierarchies from 1450 to 1750

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4.7 Changing Social Hierarchies from 1450 to 1750

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o Overview
-> Colonial ancestry and status
-> Qing conquest and elites
-> Commerce and social mobility
o Colonial ancestry and status
-> Spanish American casta labels ranked perceived ancestry.
-> Peninsulares were Spain-born; creoles had American birth.
-> Both claimed Spanish descent; birthplace shaped office access.
-> Mestizo described mixed European and Indigenous ancestry.
-> Mulatto labeled mixed African and European ancestry.
-> Wealth, gender, and legal status also shaped local rank.
o Qing conquest and elites
-> Manchu rulers took Beijing in 1644, extending Qing rule.
-> Conquest created a privileged Manchu military-political elite.
-> Han men faced the imposed queue hairstyle as a loyalty sign.
-> Qing rulers also employed Han scholar-officials in government.
-> Confucian institutions helped win established elites' support.
-> Ethnic distinctions persisted within a shared administration.
o Commerce and social mobility
-> Atlantic commerce enriched merchants and colonial landowners.
-> Plantations and mines concentrated wealth among proprietors.
-> Enslaved workers produced profits without equal legal rights.
-> Trade wealth could raise status but did not erase ancestry.
-> New elites emerged alongside older religious and landed ranks.

4.7 Changing Social Hierarchies from 1450 to 1750

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o Overview
-> Accommodation and exclusion
-> Monarchs and older elites
-> Gender and unequal status
o Accommodation and exclusion
-> Akbar recruited Hindu Rajputs into Mughal imperial service.
-> Cooperation brought local military and administrative support.
-> Ottoman rulers allowed many Jewish and Christian communities.
-> Protected status did not mean equal taxes or legal standing.
-> Spain expelled Jews in 1492; Portugal forced baptism in 1497.
-> Ottoman lands received Jewish refugees with commercial skills.
o Monarchs and older elites
-> Russian boyars were established aristocratic landholders.
-> Tsars tied noble privileges to service and tightened control.
-> Nobles still exercised power over dependent peasants.
-> Timars assigned revenue rights in return for cavalry service.
-> French nobles' Fronde failed to halt royal centralization.
-> European nobles retained rank despite stronger royal officers.
o Gender and unequal status
-> Patriarchal households remained widespread across empires.
-> Ottoman women's status varied by wealth, rank, and community.
-> Hurrem, Suleyman's wife, funded schools and a hospital.
-> Ancestry and slavery compounded colonial gender inequality.
-> Neither imperial diversity nor elite wealth ensured equality.

4.8 Continuity and Change from 1450 to 1750

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4.8 Continuity and Change from 1450 to 1750

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o Overview
-> Trade continuity and expansion
-> Production and labor change
-> Agriculture and environments
o Trade continuity and expansion
-> Before 1450, Afro-Eurasian merchants linked regional markets.
-> Indian Ocean and overland networks remained active after 1450.
-> European fleets entered rather than invented these markets.
-> Sustained Atlantic links added the Americas to wider exchange.
-> American silver connected mines to Chinese demand via Manila.
-> Global routes grew while regional merchants kept influence.
o Production and labor change
-> Peasant farming and artisan workshops remained widespread.
-> Indian cotton and Chinese silk met growing export demand.
-> Export demand intensified household and workshop labor.
-> American plantations expanded coerced export production.
-> Atlantic demand expanded slavery and hereditary bondage.
-> Earlier coercion persisted; racialized bondage grew stronger.
o Agriculture and environments
-> Agriculture remained the main livelihood in most societies.
-> Maize and potatoes widened Afro-Eurasian food supplies.
-> New crops supported population growth in suitable regions.
-> Plantation clearing and imported livestock altered habitats.
-> Farming persisted while crops, markets, and land use changed.

4.8 Continuity and Change from 1450 to 1750

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o Overview
-> Migration and social hierarchies
-> Merchants and imperial power
-> Cultural persistence and adaptation
o Migration and social hierarchies
-> American epidemics reduced many Indigenous populations.
-> Conquest and labor demands worsened demographic disruption.
-> Forced African migration reshaped colonial workforces.
-> Slaving split families and changed some African gender roles.
-> American casta rankings linked ancestry to colonial privilege.
-> Patriarchy and elite power persisted within new categories.
o Merchants and imperial power
-> Rulers had long taxed trade to support armies and courts.
-> Maritime empires added colonial revenue and naval competition.
-> Chartered firms pooled capital and gained monopoly privileges.
-> Commercial fortunes created new merchant and planter elites.
-> Older nobles retained land and rank but faced stronger rulers.
-> Trade enriched states but also financed rivals and resistance.
o Cultural persistence and adaptation
-> Islam and Christianity continued to cross commercial networks.
-> Overseas missions expanded Christianity's reach after 1492.
-> Indigenous and African traditions endured colonial pressure.
-> Religious blending adapted old practices to new conditions.
-> Greater contact changed cultures without making them uniform.