o Overview
-> Protestant Reformation
-> Catholic responses
-> Confessional Europe
o Protestant Reformation
-> Luther attacked indulgence sales in 1517.
-> Luther taught justification by faith, not works.
-> Protestants put scripture above papal authority.
-> Printing spread Luther's arguments quickly across Europe.
-> Some princes protected reform and gained church lands.
-> Lutheranism and Calvinism became Protestant traditions.
-> Calvinists stressed predestination and discipline.
o Catholic responses
-> Catholic leaders answered Protestant challenges with reform.
-> Trent upheld church tradition alongside scripture.
-> Trent also addressed clerical abuses and improved training.
-> Jesuits founded schools and carried Catholic missions abroad.
-> Seven sacraments and papal authority endured Catholic reform.
o Confessional Europe
-> Religious division fueled Europe's Thirty Years' War.
-> Catholic France fought Habsburgs for dynastic power, too.
-> France granted Huguenot rights in 1598, revoked them in 1685.
-> Vernacular Bibles widened lay access to religious debate.
-> Christianity endured while confessional unity fractured.
o Overview
-> Sunni Ottoman and Shi'a Safavid identity
-> Sikhism in a diverse Punjab
-> Faith, state, continuity, and change
o Sunni Ottoman and Shi'a Safavid identity
-> Ottomans were Sunni; Safavids made Twelver Shi'a official.
-> This distinguished Safavid Persia from Sunni rivals.
-> Ottoman-Safavid rivalry concerned land and political power.
-> War intensified a Sunni-Shi'a split rooted in early Islam.
-> Both empires used religious identity to support authority.
-> Sectarian identity could unite subjects and define rivals.
-> Neither empire's policy made its people religiously uniform.
o Sikhism in a diverse Punjab
-> Guru Nanak taught one-God devotion in Punjab.
-> Sikhism formed a distinct faith amid Hindu-Muslim interaction.
-> Sikh teachings challenged caste and stressed human equality.
-> Langar community meals put Sikh equality into practice.
o Faith, state, continuity, and change
-> Akbar allied with Hindus and encouraged tolerance.
-> Aurangzeb later restored jizya on non-Muslims, a policy shift.
-> Hindu traditions persisted under Muslim Mughal rulers.
-> Empires used faith to legitimize rule over diverse peoples.
-> Policies varied; diversity did not guarantee equality.
-> State support shaped faith, but local practice also endured.